John Milton

For his entry to History of Political Philosophy, Walter Berns focuses on the political thought of John Milton, a man better known for his poetry, yet also made many important contributions to the development of political philosophy. According to Berns, Milton saw education as being highly important to his project. Milton wanted to reform the English education system to the model of the Classical formula. While this move may appear to be radical, it is important to remember that much like the changes the Puritans made in the governance of the Church, Milton did not see himself as leading a revolution, but rather a restoration. For Milton, education was essential in helping reestablish the mixed regimes of the ancients and was particularly drawn to the work of Polybius, particularly in Polybius’ call for a regime where the elements of monarchy, democracy, and aristocracy each have their own role in government.

Though Milton was initially was willing to give power to a monarch, as his thought developed he became increasingly anti-monarchial while also developing a stronger faith in the common people. This is not to say the Milton was a democrat however as by “common people” Milton meant “not part of the nobility”, not “the masses.” Knowing this, it is unsurprising that Milton divided the common people up between the virtuous few and the vulgar multitudes. As he thought developed further, Milton did begin to feel that more people could be free, but he still kept this same basic distinction. He also went from being a monarchist; abet a reluctant one, to being a fully committed republican. This shift was caused by Milton’s belief that of all the forms of government, monarchy was most likely to devolve into tyranny. So serious was this threat, for Milton not even a constitutional monarchy could be supported as it would likely soon become tyrannical.

Rejecting both monarchy and democracy, Milton essentially became an aristocrat as he wanted to root power in the “noblest, worthiest, and most prudent men.” It is important to remember though that unlike many other advocates of aristocracy that came before him, Milton’s aristocracy is to be rooted in the merit of its aristocratic class, not by their birth. What this means, and why it is so important for political philosophy is that under Milton’s ideal system, power is rooted in the middle class. There are some democratic elements in Milton’s system as the masses are still allowed to vote, but they are not allowed to actually participate in the government. For Milton, the fact the masses had the right to vote was sufficient enough reason to forgo the need for a popular assembly. Even then, Milton shows a deep distrust of the masses as checks are still to be placed on their power.

Though many modern democrats would say Milton’s system leaves no real protection for the masses, for Milton, the masses are sufficiently protected by the fact that the best and most able men rule. Such men are highly important to the survival of Milton’s commonwealth, and thus it is absolutely paramount that more of these men are produced. Under this system, education then becomes seen as a public duty as only in a generally educated public can these men often arise to govern the commonwealth. Despite this, Milton is at his core trying to create a balance between monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, even though the aristocratic elements are by far the strongest. The monarchial elements are made even weaker by the fact that the executive is to be picked by the legislative body while the democratic elements are made weaker by the presence of some moderate property requirements for voting.

But perhaps the most radical changes Milton proposes has to do with the relationship between the Church and the state as Milton calls for the abolishing of episcopal power as for him it was unnecessary in his commonwealth. Added to this is the fact that for Milton, bishops merely got in the way of each man’s understanding of the power. Thus, under Milton’s system, ecclesiastical and state power becomes absolutely distinct. None of this though should suggest that Milton is some sort of modern advocate of state/ Church separation as he still thinks it is up to civil powers to protect the Christian religion and even goes as far as to think that a zealous and distinct people are needed to establish liberty. Because of the special class of people that is needed in order to establish liberty, liberty is a highly important concept in Milton’s thought. For Milton, there are essentially three types of liberty. Those types of liberty are as follows: spiritual liberty, civil liberty, and private liberty. Furthermore, Milton also gives liberty two distinct meaning. One meaning of liberty is virtue while the other meaning is freedom from government. Under Milton’s scheme, liberty and Christianity become deeply connected, which is very important as by doing this, Milton creates an exalted conception of liberty. It should be noted though that “liberty” for Milton clearly does not mean license as “liberty” is to lead to people fully becoming men in Christ. What’s more, this conception of liberty through Christianity is not negotiable as for Milton Original Sin prevents people from coming to know liberty in any way except through Christ.