Georg F.W. Hegel

Representing the only entry to History of Political Philosophy to be written in a language other than English and then translated, Pierre Hasser focuses his essay, translated by Allan Bloom on Georg F.W. Hegel, who is perhaps the most influential philosopher of the post-Kantian era. Though Hegel had many writings, Hasser mostly focuses on his Philosophy of Right where Hegel lays out his conception of the ideal state. This ideal state is seen as the product of both eternal Reason and universal history. Another important book Hasser draws from is Hegel’s Lectures on the Philosophy of History.

Regardless, the state is a highly important element of Hegel’s thought as it is only through the state that the individual can come to his/her true reality and it is also only by the state that the individual can come to the universal. It should be noted that by “state” Hegel does not mean an actually existing state or states, but rather an ideal state. Hegel’s state, though representing the final end for humanity, it does not become divine. Despite his talk of the “ideal state” Hegel does not abandon the practical as he thinks politics, the actually existing state, and the ideal state must all be embraced.

Also important for Hegel is the idea of development, as it is through this development that the irrational can become the rational. Hegel’s state is also a product of this development and much like the human body; the state brings about unity to disjointed parts. Ultimately this development is linked to conflict. For Hegel, conflict is prior to the state and has its origins in the conflict between the master and the slave. It is though the conflict of the master and the slave that the worlds of the abstract and the practical are built. The state is seen as being founded to help end this conflict. In the state, all conflicts are seen as being rooted in the tension between the individual’s will and his/her status in the state.

In Hegel’s state, the human will to freedom can become a meaningful reality. This is an important point as for Hegel, the reason why states of the past were unable to do this and in fact often became very tyrannical was because they were not fully universalized and were thus subject to ruin. Ultimately, Hegel’s state will bring about the synthesis between liberty and order, a process that Hegel sees as being completed by the historical process. History is one of the most central processes for Hegel’s thought, particularly as it relates to the development of freedom, For Hegel, freedom has become known in history through three stages. These stages are as follows: 1) The Oriental stage, where one is free, 2) The Greco-Roman stage, where some are free, and 3) The Germanic stage, where all are free. In keeping with his idea of the historical development of freedom, Hegel sees Christianity as bringing the potential for freedom in the Greco-Roman world while the Germanic world would actualize this freedom, an act that was more specifically completed by the rise of Protestantism. Of particular importance for Hegel was the Protestant abolishment of the distinction between priests and the laity. Hegel also sees Protestantism as leading to the secularization of Christianity. What Hegel meant by this is that Christian ethics have now been fully introduced to the state while the state officially remained purely in the temporal realm.

Furthermore, though the state laws should be rational, Hegel still recognizes a social and historical basis for these laws and is thus very prudent in his application of universal rationality to the laws of existing states, which means that while no existing state can fully live up to his ideal, Hegel does and can recognize many positive aspects of existing states. Hegel particularly admires Prussia for its ability to represent both revolutionary exinges (as seen in its Protestantism) and traditional order (as seen in its monarchism). For Hegel, the modern state requires three elements. These elements are as follows: 1) rational law, 2) government, and 3) sentiment or morals. In keeping with his general trend of combining elements of revolution and conservatism, Hegel notes that Plato was guilty or only embracing the last two while the liberals and revolutionaries are guilty of only embracing the first one. For Hegel, the challenge that lays before humanity now is to embrace all three.

In keeping with his tripartite trend, Hegel also notes that there are three stages of education. These stages are as follows: 1) the family, 2) civil society, and 3) the state. The family and civil society are both seen as distinct from the state due to their particularity. The family does exist in unity and is a model for the state, but because this unity is based in the immediate rather than in rationality, it is seen as being below the state. Likewise, though civil society increases particularity, Hegel also sees it as allowing humans to better understand formal universality. This is important as for Hegel right requires the movement from the particular to the universal. This does not mean things rooted in the particular are bad as though the family and social groups are rooted in the particular, they help humans better understand the universal through development.

Hegel’s tripartite scheme continues on class as Hegel identifies three distinct classes. These classes are as follows: 1) the agrarian class, 2) the civil servant class, and 3) the industrial class. Because the agrarian class and the civil servant class are rooted in the family and the state respectively, it is only the industrial class according to Hegel that is essentially orientated towards the particular. Because of this, Hegel sees government regulation of industry as being required in order to prevent social degradation. Connecting to this is Hegel ideal construction of the state, which also contains three parts. These parts are as follows: 1) the legislature, which as the power to determine and establish the universal, 2) the executive, which as the power to bring the particular under the rule of the universal, and 3) the crown, where ultimate authority lies and is also seen as representing the unity of the state. Under this conception, civil service becomes elevated because it is seen as a universalized, democratic class as it is open to all classes. The civil service is thus based on merit, which Hegel thinks will bring about greater unity. Likewise, the legislature is seen as a reflection of the social order of society and should be grounded in the agrarian class as that class as being the most attune to the importance of order. Despite this focus though, other classes such as the industrial class are also represented.      

Hegel’s move to recognize both freedom and order causes him to accept many instances of freedom, but only in limited application. One particular way this can be seen is through Hegel’s ideas of freedom of communication, for while he generally supports it, he also sees some instances when censorship is appropriate. Likewise, equality is recognized, but only in a limited application of it as only equality before the law is seen as needed Social equality is not recognized under Hegel’s scheme.

Hegel sees war as a way of bringing about the fullness of the state and thus rejects Kant’s perpetual peace. Hegel also rejects international law, as without a state to guide it, Hegel sees international law as an incompetent method of bringing about peace. For Hegel, international law will always be rooted in the particular, never the universal. Wars are also seen as carrying with them an historic mission of the universal spirit and brings this spirit into eventual actualization. When this process is combined with “The End of History” an unusual development occurs on the matter of war and historical development as war is seen as both moving history, yet will also be abolished by it.

On one last point, Hegel’s state is seen as being open to all, but it is still founded on European and Protestant principles as these principles are seen as completing the universal project. As such, Europe must spread these principles to Asia just as they did previously to the Americas. As soon as this process is complete, Hegel’s project can at last be fully universalized and actualized.